BAPTISM IN THE POST-MODERN PERIOD
General Introduction
“The
day when a person is baptized, is more important than the day when a person is
ordained priest and Bishop”[1]-
Raymond E. Brown.
I hope that this is a suitable
quotation to begin my dissertation. Baptism is the only door to enter into
sacraments. It is also true that baptism plays a vital role in the life of
Christians. To be a Christian does not mean just accepting the teachings of
Christ and joining the Christian religion founded by Jesus Christ. In the post-modern
period, many people think that baptism is a mere change of religion. The experience
of Christ remains on the ritual level without having any impact on their life.
I happened to participate in a
baptism-mass in Ponmalai parish of Trichy diocese. After the holy Eucharistic
celebration the priest carried the child and placed the child on the altar and
asked the congregation to gather near the altar and beseech them to pray for
the child. The congregation whole heartedly welcomed the new born child by
clapping their hands. Then the congregation marked the cross on the forehead of
the child and they happily praised God by a hymn. Finally the priest was
encapsulating the theology of baptism and meaning of the baptism. I was elated
by seeing this meaningful ritual of baptism in the post-modern period. This
incident inspired me to study the sacrament of baptism in depth and motivated
me to choose this topic for my dissertation work. I hope that this dissertation
will be a stepping stone to do my future priestly ministry fruitfully basing on
these strong foundations.
The aim of this dissertation is
to help the people to understand the Catholic rites of baptism rightly with the
background of some historical evidences and biblical references. This dissertation
enunciates how the sacrament of initiation is being celebrated by other
religions in India? It points out also the theology of baptism in the post-modern
period.
In the first chapter I explain how
the rites of initiation take place in the various religions in India. It also speaks
about the significance of the Roman Catholic rite of initiation and how it
differs from other religions. In this
chapter, I shall restrict my discussion to the major religious traditions in
India like Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam and Christianity. This chapter
gives also the thrust of the major
religious rites of initiation and their significance.
The second chapter deals with
the theology of baptism in the New Testament. I have divided this chapter under
two main topics: Baptism in the gospels and baptism in the New Testament. This
chapter gives a comprehensive idea of biblical references to the sacrament of
baptism with the available sources.
In the third chapter, I elaborately
deal with the historical development of theology and the rites of baptism. This
chapter begins with the background for baptism and I explain how the theology
and the rites of baptism emerged in the
history. It also summarizes the great theologian views of baptism.
The fourth chapter explains the
celebration of baptism in the post-modern period. I have discussed the
challenges of baptism in this post-modern period and propose an alternative
model rite before and after the baptism. It is only a suggestion for the people
who want to celebrate the baptism in a meaningful and creative manner.
This dissertation may have its
own limitations as I have mainly focused only on the ritual and theological
aspects of baptism with the help of available sources and books in our library.
Chapter-1
Rites of initiation and religions
1.1 Meaning of initiation
1)
The word
‘initiation’ comes from Latin word ‘initium’ which means a new beginning.
2)
Oxford dictionary gives the meaning of the word
‘initiation’ as, “the act of somebody becoming a member of a group, often with
a special ceremony; the act of introducing somebody to an activity or skill.”[2]
3)
According to Aristotle, “Those undergoing
initiation are not expected to gain knowledge (Mathein) but an experience
(Pathein) and a disposition.
4)
From the religious point of view, initiation is
seen as an experience with the sacred. Rites of initiation reflect the human
desire for an ever-increasing participation in the sacred.
In this background of the meaning of initiation rituals, I
shall clearly discuss the rites of initiation in the religious traditions of
India. Religious forms remain meaningful to the extent, they inspire the values
for which they stand; but when they cease to be the source of inspiration, they
become dead and a cloak of hypocrisy. India is a multi-religious country where
each religion has its own initiation ceremony. In this chapter, I shall
restrict my discussion to the major religious traditions in India like; Hinduism,
Buddhism, Sikhism and Islam.
RITES OF INITIATION IN MAJOR RELIGIONS IN INDIA
1.2 Hindu rite of initiation
The rite of initiation in Hindu religion is known as
Samskara* which literally means a process of purification and
refinement. The idea behind the evolution of Samskara is to make man undergo
purification and refinement so that he may become fit for leading a higher life
which is spiritually rich and sanctifying.[3]
Samskaras help a person to awake his consciousness of the divine dimensions in
his life-process. The Samskaras are grouped under five categories: marriage
rituals, pre-natal samskaras, childhood samskaras and finally funeral rites.[4]
1.2.1 Upanayana
The samskara of initiation Upanayana which is called as the
thread ceremony. It initiates a Hindu boy into brahmacharya. This ritual
belongs only to the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas. The upanayana rite of a Brahmin
boy should be performed in the eight year. Kshatriya boy should be performed in
the eleventh year. The Vaisya boy should be performed in the twelfth year.
The ritual of
upanayana encapsulates here. A boy is initiated to an enlightened master into
the world of learning. It is a sacred time in his life. During this period, the
Brahmin boys learn the Vedas, the Kshatriyas master the material arts and the
Vaisyas get training in commercial pursuits. This ceremony is preceded by the
worship of Ganesa and goddess Sarasvati (pattern for education). The
significance of articles given at the time of Upnayana ceremony is discussed as
below;
1.2.2 Upper garment
During this ceremony
the boy is required to put on an upper garment which is the symbol of deerskin.
Deerskin was considered as a symbol of thirst for holy luster as well as
intellectual and spiritual pre-eminence. It was a reminder to the student that
he should attain the spiritual and intellectual status of an Rsi.[5]
The acharya gives a piece of garment to his disciple with these words: “In the
way in which Brahaspati put the garment of immortality on Indra, thus I put
this garment on thee, for the sake of long life, splendor, and strength.[6]
1.2.3 Girdle
It is made of triple
cord which is tied by the acharya around the waist of the pupil who says, “Here
has come to me, keeping away evil words, purifying mankind as a purifier,
clothing herself by power of inhalation and exhalation, with strength, this
sisterly goddess, the blessed girdle”.[7]
The girdle with its triple cord conveys the idea that the three Vedas always
encircle the pupil.
1.2.4 Sacred thread
This is the most important part of the ceremony in which the
student is invested by the acharya. The thread is length wise ninety six times
as the breadth of the four figures of a man, each of the four fingers
signifying one of the four stages that a
soul experiences – waking, dream, dreamless sleep and absolute Brahman hood.
The cord has three folds representing the three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas
(truthfulness, passion, darkness). The three cords are the reminder that the
wearer needs to pay off his debts to ancient seers, ancestors and gods. The
knot called brahmagranthi ties together the three cords and represents Brahma, Vishnu
and Siva.[8]
1.2.5 Staff
It is one of the articles handed over to the student during
this ceremony. The staff indicates different meanings. It indicates that the
student is a traveler on the long road of knowledge. It also indicates the long
life, holy luster and holiness. He is armed with staff to protect the sacred
Vedas. Then the acharya pours water on the hands of the disciple as a symbol of
purification. The Gayatri mantra is then addressed to the Lord of light: “Aum,
the earth, the sky and the heavens! We meditate upon the glorious splendor of
the divine vivifier; may He enlighten our intellectual faculty.”[9]
The above rituals pertain only to the three upper castes of
Hinduism. Sudras and Dalits are exempted from the performance of such rituals.
The so-called upper caste people not even consider the Sudras and Dalits in the
category of human beings. They consider them as the servers to the upper caste
people. The scope of my thesis limits me to discuss them in great detail.
1.3 initiation in Sikhism
The Sikh
initiation ceremony commenced from 1699. Guru Gobind Singh (10th
leader) initiated five followers and then he himself was initiated by his
followers. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanchar or Khande Di
Pahul. The initiated Sikh is called an Amritdhari, which means ‘Amrit Taker’ or
‘one who has taken on Amrit’. The Sikh initiation ceremony was started at the
time of Guru Gobind Singh. When Khalsa was inaugurated on the Baisakhi day of
the year 1699 at Anandpur sahib, Guru Gobind Singh addressed the congregation
with the sword in hand and asked for a disciple who could sacrifice his head
for God. At first, the people hesitated, and then one man stepped forward and
he was taken to a tent and Guru Gobind Sing came out from the tent with
blood-soaked sword. He asked the same question again. After that the four volunteers
from congregation courageously went into the tent. Sometime later, Gobind Singh
reappeared with the four, who now all dressed like him. These five men came to
known as Panj Pyares or the five- beloved ones.[10]
These five were Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Mukham Singh, Bhai Sahib Singh, Bhai
Dharam Singh and Bhai Himmat Singh. The Sikh men were given the name “Singh”
which means “Lion” and the women last name “Kaur” which means “Princess.” This
sacramental significance of the five beloved ones was reborn into the newly
created order of the Khalsa.
The ritual
rites of Sikhism are given in the book called ‘Sikh Rahit Maryada’ which
explains about the performance of initiation ceremony. The rituals are filling
an iron bowl with clean water and stir it with the double-edged sword. The five
Sikhs explain the principles of Sikhism including belief in oneness of God. His
love as the only way of salvation, the Guru’s word as the means of awakening
that love in one’s heart, and service of man with selflessness and scarifies.
The neophytes are asked to wear five K’s for the rest of life. The symbolic understanding
of five K’s is Kesh (hair), Kirpan (sword), Kanga (comb), Kara (iron bangle)
and Kachh (under wear) . The significance of these five K’s is as follows:
Kesh (long
uncut hair) is associated with saintliness; Kanga (comb) performs the function
of maintaining the hair and imparting an orderly arrangement. Kesh and Kanga
symbolize that the Sikh must not renounce the world but must pursue their
religious discipline to the last as an active and useful citizen. Kirpan
(sword) which cuts at the very root of avidya is the symbol of the transcendental
knowledge. It is also the symbol of Guru himself, who destroys the ignorance.
Sword is an instrument of defense and offence and also an emblem of power and
dignity. Kara (iron bangle) is a reminder of the double role of a spiritual
aspirant and useful citizen. Kara is also the sign of one’s sternness and restraint.
Kachh (under wear) is the fifth symbol, which the neophytes is enjoined to
wear. Covering the genital organ is the first and basic act of civilization.
Kachh signifies the commitment to the procreative world as against renouncing
it.[11]
Then each neophyte is required to affirm that his father is Guru Gobind Singh
and his mother Mata Sahib Kaur. After this ceremony, they can add Singh with
their names for male and Kaur for female.
1.4 initiation in buddhism
The Buddha
prescribed no special ceremony to become a Buddhist. The true disciple of
Buddha is not the householder but the person who renounces the world, puts on
the yellow robe, and enters the monastic order. The Buddha’s disciples were
away from ordinary life pursuits. They were supported by the lay disciples. To
become a Bhikkhu(Buddhist monk) is a long process of disciplinary training and
education ceremony involving the novice, the abbot and sangha (the community of
the monks). The nags must shave off all their heads and answer the question of
the elder monks, the nag is admitted to the sangha and his religious training
begins.[12]
During the ceremony the nags must take the vow reverently by saying, “I take
refuge in Buddha, I take refuge in Dharma, I take refuge in the Sangha”. The
sangha is not closed to women. They are permitted to the order of nuns. It remains
subordinate to the order of monks. The women also have a similar initiation
process.
The layperson, who likes to become the disciple
of Buddha, must fulfill the following conditions.
Take refuge in the three jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the
Sangha.
Take the five moral vows that were binding on the Upasaka.
1.5 initiation in islam
Birth is a
joyful event in a family and this is equally true of a Muslim family. Girl or
boy, the birth of a child should always be a sign of the grace and bounty of
God. It is a time for celebration and thanking God. The naming ceremony is
known as Subu which occurs a week after the birth. Ritually, the parents call
to prayer into the ears of the infant immediately after birth. The father does
the naming in the presence of the child’s mother and relatives. The child has
henna (a paste made of leaves) believed to protect the child’s spirit from
harm. It is taken to be a bad Omen to name a child after a living relative.
The naming
ceremony is celebrated by the sacrifice of a sheep or goat. The child’s hair
shaved and alms are distributed to the poor. The removal of hair and sacrifice
of an animal signify that the protection of the child comes from unseen forces.
This ceremony is also an occasion to affirm the social community that the new
child is entering, and the sacrifice provides an opportunity to spell out such
a unity around a meal.
The
important ceremony for a Muslim boy is circumcision. The Arabic word Khitan
refers to this ritual. There is no reference to it in Quran but it is strictly
observed in the Islamic world. It is hold to be Sunnah, or founded upon the
customs of the prophet. This ritual is also known as Sunnet (the practice of
the prophet).[14]
The circumcision is done at the time of adolescence. A hadith narrated by Abu
Hurayrah (a companion of the prophet Muhammad), “Five things are part of the
natural state of being human: circumcision, shaving the pubes, shaving under
the armpits, trimming the moustache and cutting the nails (Sabiq 1980; 1, 34).”[15]
Some Islam scholars do not accept this practice of circumcision as it is
associated with a reduced chance of urinary infection. It is performed before
marriage. This ritual is normally celebrated after the bath of the boy and his
head is shaved. Henna (oil) is painted on his hands and feet. A sacrifice is
made and a feast is prepared for relatives. The boy uses to wear a white
garment. This white garment indicates the purification. some Arabic countries
follow the female circumcision too.
1.6 baptism in Christianity
The word ‘Christians’
is commonly used to denote the people who follow Christ. Christianity has so
many denominations like the Protestant, CSI, and Catholic. Each denomination
follows its the own way of celebrating Baptism. Some denominations accept the adolescence
baptism but the Roman Catholic Church insists on infant baptism. In this
section, I like to focus only on the celebration of baptism in the Roman Catholic
Church.
The
sacrament of initiation is a complex that takes place through three different sacraments:
baptism, Confirmation and Eucharist. Baptism is the most important sacrament
which is also known as the gateway to the sacramental life. The catechism of
the church says, “Holy baptism is the basis of the whole Christian life, the
gateway to the life in the spirit and the door which gives access to the
sacraments. Through baptism, we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God;
we become members of Christ and are incorporated into the Church and made
sharers in her mission: ‘baptism is the sacrament of regeneration through in
the world (CCC.1213).” [16]
Baptism may
be administered by pouring baptismal water over the candidate’s head three
times. The celebrant pronounces the baptismal formula: “I baptize you in the
name of the father, and of the son and of the Holy Spirit.” The water and word
symbolize the new life of Trinity through which the candidate shares in the
death and resurrection of Christ. Each baptismal candidate should have one
godparent. The godparent should be a mature person, a catholic living the faith
and one who is able and willing to fulfill a role of spiritual concern for the
one baptized. The name is given at baptism, should harmonize with the Christian
beliefs. The canon law says, “Parents, sponsors and the pastor are to take care
that a name foreign to Christian sensibility is not given (canon 855).”[17]
1.6.1 Theological significance of signs and symbols in baptism
Let us now
see the principle rites of baptism and their meaning of this sacrament of
initiation.
1.6.1.1 The sign of the cross
In beginning of
the ceremony, the sign of the cross is made on the forehead of the person to be
baptized. It is the symbol of Christ‘s saving power on the cross. Jesus redeemed
us from our sins through cross. The cross is the symbol of salvation.
1.6.1.2 Renunciation of sin and profession of faith
Sin is
rejected and faith is professed either by the person to be baptized (in the
case of adult baptism) or by the godparents (in the case of babies). As baptism
is the sacrament of faith. It is the sacramental entry into the life of Christian
faith.[18]
It symbolizes that Jesus redeemed us by the cross. Since, we also partake in
his death and resurrection; we are redeemed from sin and have the obligation to
proclaim his life, death, and resurrection to the world.
1.6.1.3 Baptismal formula
‘I baptize
you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.’ This is
known as baptismal formula which makes the baptism to be valid one. This
formula symbolizes that we are reborn as children of God the Father; united
with Christ as his brothers and sisters and become the temples of the Holy
Spirit who indwells in us. Thus we become united with the Holy Trinitarian
community.
1.6.1.4 Water
Water can both destroy and save
life. In the sacrament of Baptism, the pouring of the blessed water is the
outward visible sign of washing away from the sins. All grave or venial sin,
original and personal sin, is washed away and the soul is filled with the grace
and presence of Christ. The recipient becomes a temple of the Holy Spirit. The
pouring of the water on the recipient’s head or his/her immersion in water, accompanied
by the Trinitarian formula, is the central rite of this sacrament. CCC, 1238
states, “The Church asks God that through his Son the power of the Holy Spirit
may be sent upon the water so that those who will be baptized in it may be born
of water and spirit.” The blessed water is intended to remind us that the well spring
of the Holy Spirit flows within us and that we are not dried up and burnt out,
but that God’s refreshing and renewing water of life flows in us. Anselm Grun (a
Benedictine Monk of Germany) shares his experiences, “Holy water stands for the
promise that I can start my life all over again, that I can posit a new
beginning each day, and that I am not determined by the past, by the wounds of
my life-history, or by my guilt and failures. I sign myself with the cross on
my forehead, my chest, my left and right shoulders, and thereby acknowledge
that God’s life and love flows in my thoughts; in my vitality and sexuality, in
my unconscious and in my conscious mind, and that everything in me is
unconditionally accepted and loved, including those aspects of myself that I
want to exclude. By crossing myself with the holy water I come into contact
with the spring that rises in me and quenches my thirst. I feel that I am
immersed in God’s own life and love.”[19]
1.6.1.5 Chrism Oil
In the Old Testament kings, prophets and priests were anointed
to symbolize the coming of God’s Spirit to enable them to be divine leaders of
God’s people. The anointing of the candidate at Baptism with Sacred Chrism,
blessed by the bishop, symbolizes an interior anointing in the soul. Pope
Innocent I wrote a letter to Decentius, bishop of Gubbio (416), clearly distinguishes
baptism which is conferred by the presbyter from the signing with chrism
reserved to the bishop. He says, “The signing of infants with chrism oil may
only be done by the bishop. For, though the presbyters are priests of the
second order, yet they do not have the fullness of the pontificate. The
conferring of the spirit is proper only to the bishop is clearly shown not only
by the Church’s custom but by that passage of the directed to confer the Holy
Spirit to those who were already baptized.”[20]
Anointing with the Chrism Oil symbolizes that we are royal, prophetic and
priestly people. Baptism makes us royal because we are not under the control of
others and ruled by no one but by Christ. Baptism makes us prophetic because
the prophets are those who speak openly and trustworthily. Baptism makes us
priests because we have direct access to God and unite God and humanity in and
through us.
1.6.1.6 White garment
Garment of new white clothe symbolizes the purity, festivity
and new identity, of the new life in Christ. It symbolize that they were
clothing themselves with Christ (Gal 3:27). This metaphor of Paul recalls the
notion of a heavenly robe already lying in heaven, awaiting our arrival there.
Baptism made us one with Christ, and we are now, heavenly beings reflecting the
beauty of heaven on this earth. Putting on the garment is not merely something
external but transformation of the whole person and heart as well. We have to become
a different people through baptism.
1.6.1.7 Candle
Christ is the light
of the world, it demands us to be afire with the life of Christ, let his love
shine forth from us to the world.
The lighted candle signifies that Christ has “enlightened” the child and that
they are to become the light of the world. This rite expresses the idea that
every Christian is a ray of light for this world. Baptism not only shows us that this light is
born for us in that child but the child himself or herself is illuminated by
God’s everlasting light. Our eyes are opened and light up in baptism. Then we
see reality pure and simple. Baptism illuminates our eyes to see God’s light in
us.
1.6.2 The dynamism of baptism:
The birth
of someone is a memorable event in the life of a family and of society, which
receives a new member. The baptism is the door to the Church and the entrance
to a new life. We are reborn from the state of slavery of sin to the freedom of
the children of God. Baptism incorporates us with Christ’s mystical body and
makes us partakers of his redemptive act. The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines
the fruits of baptism as follows, “ Baptismal grace is a rich reality that
includes forgiveness of original sin and all personal sins, birth into the new
life by which man becomes an adoptive son of the Father, a member of Christ and
a temple of the Holy Spirit. By this very fact the person baptized is
incorporated into the Church, the Body of Christ, and made a sharer in the
priesthood of Christ (CCC 1279).”[21]
Here I shall explain the principle effects of the Baptism as follows:
1.6.2.1 The remission of sins
The baptized
persons are redeemed from the original sin, which is carried from our first
parent (Adam and Eve) and the personal sins which they commit. It clearly
states in the book of Acts, “Repent and be baptized every one of you in the
name of Jesus Christ so that your sins may be forgiven; and you will receive
the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38).[22]
Pope Innocent III also said, “We believe that all sins are remitted in baptism,
both original sin and those sins which have been voluntarily committed.” The
baptism keeps the person to be clean and away from all sins.
1.6.2.2 Adopted children of God
Through baptism,
we have got the privilege to call God as ‘Abba’. Therefore, we can call his
only Son Jesus Christ as our elder brother. Since Jesus is our elder brother,
we may call our neighbors as our brothers and sisters in Jesus Christ. We are
transformed into children of God. We are taken into the household of God and
share in the God’s divine life. We become the temple of the Holy Spirit.
Baptism is both a rising with Christ and a new birth. St. Peter wrote: “Blessed
are the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! By His great mercy we have
been born a new to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from
the dead (1 Pet 1:3).”
1.6.2.3 Incorporation into the community of believers
Baptism is
the basic sacrament of initiation into the community of Christ and the Church.
The effect of the sacrament of Baptism is the incorporation into the community
of believers or the people of God. Baptism is seen as the gateway, which gives
access to the other spiritual resources. Council of Florence (1431) states
clearly, “Among all the sacraments holy baptism holds the first place because
it is the gateway to the spiritual life; by it we are made members of Christ
and belong to his body and the church”.[23]
Emeritus Pope
Benedict XVI teaches in Sacramentum Caritatis:
“ The Sacrament of Baptism, by which we are conformed to Christ, incorporated
in the church in the church and made children of God, is the portal to all the
sacraments… it is our participation in the Eucharistic sacrifice which perfects
within us the gifts given to us at baptism.”[24]
In the
early church, the baptism was celebrated during the Easter Vigil and the
community was there to welcome its new members. The baptism is not only a
family affair but involves also the acceptance of a new member into the parish
community. To be an actual members of the Catholic Church, the baptized person
must also ready to profess what the Church teaches, and accept her laws and
obligations with an open heart. The members of the Church also obtain grace
from God. The church is the universal sacraments of salvation and
sanctification. All the graces that a Catholic receives from God are channeled
through the Catholic Church. Those who are baptized have a special right to
these graces to which no one else has claim.
1.6.2.4 Sharing in the royal priesthood of Christ
Baptism
gives a share in the priesthood of Christ and in the common priesthood of all
believers. The priesthood of Christ is unfolded in the triple ministry of being
a prophet, priest, and king. Through baptism, we too will partake in the triple
functions of Christ. St. Peter speaks of baptism, by which all baptized persons
become worshippers of God in spirit and in truth: “you are the chosen race, a
royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people, that you may declare the
wonderful deeds of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvelous light.
Once you were no people but now you are God’s people (1 Pet 2:9-10).” St. Peter
is speaking here of the worship of the people not only in the sense of liturgy but
also in the wider sense of embracing and sanctifying all the duties of life.
Through the priesthood of Christ, we have the privilege to share in the cultic
acts of the Christian community gathered for its liturgical and sacramental
actions.
An ordained
priest offers the sacrifice of the mass. After the model of Jesus, he offers
the Eucharistic sacrifice which is, “A holy exchange of gifts.” Simple
ingredients of bread and wine are offered and become the Body and Blood of
Christ. Our humble earthly offerings are transformed into Christ himself. Each
baptized person by offering every part of his or her life to God, just as a
priest offers the sacrifice of the mass, shares also in the priesthood of Jesus
Christ. This is made possible by the anointing of baptism.[25]
1.6.2.5 Entrance into the Trinitarian community
The sacrament
of baptism makes us share in the life of the Holy Trinity. The Trinitarian life
has to go on as the Father generates the Son and the Son comes from him and recognizes
the Father as the source of being. The Holy Spirit, who proceeds from the
Father and Son, unites all the three persons into one God-head. At the time of
baptism, the parents profess the faith on behalf of the child in Jesus Christ and
in the Father and in the Holy Spirit. The Christian faith is essentially Trinitarian.
Baptism in the name of the three persons consecrates the baptized person to the
Trinity. Here the life of the baptized person is fully open for transformation.
The baptized will transform the world into the Kingdom of God by their life of
faith and sharing. They also participate in the death and resurrection of
Christ by constant fight against all sinful and unjust events in the society.
Conclusion
1)
Rites of Initiation involve a cosmic
Journey.
2) Initiation rites reflect the
human desire for participation in the sacred.
3) The initiation in religions
unites the individual into a community.
The
next chapter deals with the biblical perspective of baptism in the New
Testament.
Chapter-2
Biblical perspective of baptism
2.1 Gospels
2.1.1 Matthew
When we search for the origin of baptism in the New
Testament, immediately we are struck by the fact that Jesus himself had
undergone baptism. Therefore it is better to explain first about Jesus’
Baptism. Matthew 3:13-17 states that Jesus came to be baptized by John. Before
entering into his public ministry, Jesus was moving with sinners and identifies
himself with the sinners. Jesus himself was sinless but he really felt the
weight of sin. Therefore he closely identified himself with the sinners. This
baptism proved to be a turning point in Jesus’ life. His baptism marked the
beginning of the new creation for he was overwhelmed by the Abba experience.
This Abba experience made him to choose not to return home but rather to go out
to share with others what he had come to know.
Jesus by baptism, in and through every baptized person is
called to live in righteousness for him. According to Michel Fallon,
“Righteousness referred to the carrying out of God’s will. Righteousness is
possible only because of the grace of God’s enabling spirit, the spirit which
comes down from God and alights on Jesus; the spirit with which Jesus is to
baptize.[26]
Jesus’ baptism tells us that baptism is an pouring out God’s
spirit upon us and entrusting us to the community. We are born innocent like a
fish in a polluted river; we are born into the world of sin. Baptism frees us
from the clutches of sins. It welcomes
us into the community of faith.
Matthew called Jesus’ baptism as the servant baptism. Jesus
had come to give himself as a sin offering, to bear other’s sins and to
intercede for our forgiveness. Therefore we affirm that as the spirit descended
upon Jesus at his baptism, the same spirit also descended upon us at our
baptism. Like the Father declared Jesus to be his beloved son, he also declares
us to be his beloved sons and daughters in Christ. As Jesus, we too are called
to give our lives as the servants of the kingdom of God.[27] Matthew 28:19 also affirms it: “Go therefore
and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and
of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.” The main thrust of this passage is on the
authority of Jesus, as the son of God. Jesus has all authority; he shifts his
authority to us to make all the people his followers. He assures that he will
be with his followers till the end of time.
2.1.2 Mark
Mark begins his gospel with the baptism of Jesus Christ.
Mark 1:10-11 says, “Jesus was coming up out of the water, he saw the heavens
torn apart and the spirit descending like a dove on him. And a voice came from
heaven, ‘you are my son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased.”
Jesus’ baptism is different from John’s baptism. John
baptized for the people for repentance but the significance of Jesus baptism is
not repentance from sins but it is for his suffering and death to be followed
by his resurrection. John’ baptism was a kind of ceremonial washing which was
an outward sign of their turning back to God. John followed the Old Testament
practice of purification. The Law of Moses had prescriptions for various
ceremonial washings for purification from uncleanness usually for the priests
serving in the temple. However, by the time of Jesus, the practice had become
more wide spread as a symbol of repentance from sin. So the key idea of John’s
baptism was repentance and confession of sins; and where the water symbolized a
cleansing from sins committed. So we conclude that John’s baptism did not make
a person Christian in the full sense of the word. There may raise a question,
“why did Jesus insist on being baptized by John? St. Jerome commented on this
passage like this: “The event is described without any embarrassment about a
baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. Mark does not tell us why
Jesus received John’s baptism; his chief interest was the revelation of Jesus
identity…the opening of the heavens symbolizes the end of separation from God
and the beginning of communication between heaven and earth.”[28]
Raymond E.
Brown commented on the descending of the spirit on Jesus at the time of baptism
as follows: “Mark thought Jesus to be an ordinary human being whom God was now
adopting as son and endowing with divine power.”[29]
There are two reasons that Mark suggests for Jesus’ baptism. The first is
revelation. His baptism in water serves to reveal Jesus as Israel’s Messiah.
The second reason for Jesus’ baptism is a sign that Jesus identifies himself
fully with the human race. In this sense, the symbol of baptism in water also
carried the notion of immersion as a sign of identification and solidarity. In sense,
Jesus this becomes one with the people, as he humbles himself in this action.
So there are two commonly understood reasons as to why Jesus is baptized in
water by John the Baptist. However this action was only symbolic. It was a
preparation for his ministry and he had another baptism which was a great and
more significant baptism. Jesus makes this baptism apparent in Mk 10:38-39 by
asking the sons of Zebedee “Are you able to drink the cup that I drink, or be
baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with which I am baptized?” They
replied, ‘we are able’. Then Jesus said to them, “the cup that I drink you will
drink; and with the baptism with which I am baptized you will be baptized”.
Here Jesus speaks of his baptism in reference to his death. So Jesus real death
was a general baptism for the sins of the world. The baptism of Jesus was his
cross and resurrection.
2.1.3 Luke
Luke referred to baptism as a complete purification bath. In
Luke 12: 50 Jesus said, “I have a baptism with which to be baptized.” The saying
in Luke was less obviously a reference to Jesus’ death but Luke used it in the
eschatological context with more emphasis on judgment and punishment.
2.1.4 John
In the fourth Gospel, John had a several symbolic references
to baptism and water. For example, ‘The living water’ that wells up for eternal
life that is central to Jesus conversation with the Samaritan woman at the well
of Jacob (4:7-15), the healing water in the pool in Jerusalem (5:1-7), the
healing of the blind man at the pool of Siloam (9:1-17) and the washing of
disciples feet by Jesus (13:5-10). The water is used in the fourth gospel often
as a symbol of the spirit and also of Jesus himself.” [30]
When the water is used figuratively in the Old Testament it
refers to renewal or cleansing. The most important biblical verse is Ezekiel
36:25: “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and you shall be clean from all
your uncleanness and from all your idols I will cleanse you”. Here water is the
symbol of eschatological cleansing.
John says in 3:5: “Very truly, I tell you, no one can enter
the kingdom of God without being born of water and spirit.” The water and
spirit are forming a conceptual unity. There is only one birth, not two. Here
water is the means or the occasion and the spirit is the mediator of the new
birth. Some scholars have suggested that the birth by water is a reference to
physical birth, either the male semen or the waters in the womb.
In John the baptism of Jesus is a symbol and anticipation of
his real baptism which stood for his passion and death. There are two passages
in the synoptic gospels where Jesus himself refers to his death as a baptism.
To James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who wanted to sit one at his right hand
and the other at his left in his glory, Jesus asked, “Are you able to drink the
cup that I drink, or be baptized with the baptism that with which I am
baptized?” The cup in Old Testament symbolizes blessing and joy, as well as
punishment and suffering (Ps 23:5; Is 51:17; Jer 49:12). According to Jesus,
the cup indicates his redemptive suffering.
conclusion
The following points are summarized in the Gospel:
1)
The baptism was considered as freedom from the
clutches of sins.
2)
Jesus’ baptism was called as a servant baptism.
3)
John’s baptism was considered as outward sign of
repentance. Jesus’ baptism was considered as an inward sign of repentance.
4)
The baptism of water and adult baptism was
insisted.
5)
Baptism looked in the eschatological context.
6)
Baptism sets in the eschatological community of
salvation.
7)
It effects salvation, forgiveness of sins and
freedom from the sins.
2.2 Pauline Epistles
2.2.1 Romans
Paul asked in Rom 6:3, “Do you not know that
all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his
death?” This verse is closely connected to Colo 2:12: “When you were buried
with him in baptism, you were also raised with him through faith in the power
of God, who raised him from the dead.” James
D. G. Dunn has remarked about the close connection between these two verses
which speaks of baptism as a means of or an instrument to being buried with
Christ or as the context in which the would-be Christians were buried with
Christ. Paul is here clearly evoking the powerful symbolism of baptism as a
burying of the old life.”[31]
Rudolf Schnackenburg, in his Baptism in the Thought of St Paul,
describes this text from Romans 6 as ‘the Locus Classicus’ for any discussion
of Paul's concept of Baptism as Salvation.[32]
G. R. Beasley-Murray interprets this passage with some
justification that 'it is preferable to interpret obscure passages in the light
of the clear'. Here the baptism is not the central
theme of the argument in Romans 6. In fact, it is little more than an
incidental illustration of the main point of Paul's thought; the unity that
exists between Christ and the believers is the basis for the Christian's
ethical life style.[33]
Marcus Barth also says, “'In the Pauline letters intimations
regarding baptism occur only in ethical contexts. Decisive elements of the life
and conduct in faith are, structured after the model of baptism.”[34]
2.2.2 1 Corinthians
'For Christ did not send me
to baptize but to preach the gospel' (I Corinthians 1.17) sounds almost as if
the practice of baptism is being set against the proclamation of the gospel.
Some may misunderstand this passage negatively. When we look at this epistle
very closely, we may correct that false understanding and set the relationship
between baptism and preaching and also between works and faith. G. R. Beasley-Murray
distinguishes that “Baptism is secondary to the proclamation in that it depends
upon it and embodies it; it can never be said to be of second-rate importance.
In short, baptism should not be set against the preaching of the gospel on the
basis of verse 17, but should be seen as complementary to it.”[35]
1
Corinthian 10:2 says that “all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the
sea”. It contains reference to baptism into Moses. G.
R. Beasley-Murray says, “If the Jews at this time did view the Red Sea crossing
as a baptism, Paul has put it in Christian term, it is evidence from the key
phrase, 'they were baptized to Moses'. Baptism 'to Moses' is modeled on baptism
'to Christ’ and the latter is the key to understanding the former, not vice
versa.”[36] Rudolf
Schnackenburg explains it well: “It is characteristic of Paul's typological
exposition, however, that he does not search out all the possible pre-figurations
in the Old Testament, as this soon took place in the ancient Church in a marked
fashion; he selects a few Christological and ecclesiological significant
figures (Adam, Abraham, Moses) and events to illuminate his proclamation of
Christ and to gain fruitful applications for the Churches.”[37] Paul
moves from Christian fulfillment to the Old Testament pre-figuration. He
interprets the Old Testament in the light of what he knows to be true about the
New Covenant in Christ. The final point to emphasize on I Corinthians 10:l ff
is that the whole paragraph is concerned with the ethical life-style which Paul
is calling the Corinthians to adopt. Beasley Murray so aptly remarks in his
opening comments on these verses: “The chief requirement for understanding this
greatly misused passage is to recognize that verses l has a context and that verses
6 is an unfinished sentence.”[38]
1
Corinthians 12:13 says that “For in the one Spirit we are all baptized into one
body”. Baptism is the channel whereby the Christians are united in one body of
Christ. This is the first encounter with such an idea clearly set forth within
the Corinthian epistles. Beasley-Murray states: “For the first time we meet
here an explicit declaration that baptism leads into the Church. 'One final
point, stressed by Beasley-Murray, seems fundamentally correct. He wishes to
emphasize that the thrust of both passages (Galatians 3.27 and I Corinthians
12.13) is toward a corporate understanding of the believer's entry into the
Body of Christ. 'The believer is baptized "to one body": not so as to
form the Body but to participate in it, to be added to it.”[39]
1
Corinthians 15:29 says: “What will those people do who receive baptism on
behalf of the dead? If the dead are not raised at all, why are people baptized
on their behalf?” Albert Schweitzer who
argued that the dead on whose behalf some of the Corinthian Church members were
allowing themselves to be baptized were thought to benefit, in that they were
to rise from the dead at the coming of the Lord at the parousia, instead of
being required to wait until the end of the temporary Messianic age
2.2.3 II Corinthians
II
Corinthians 1.22-23 says: “By putting his seal on us and giving us his Spirit
in our hearts as a first installment.” Here
the baptismal imagery is expanded to include 'sealing' as an additional way in
which the Apostle describes the Christian experience of baptism. The sealing is
spoken of in terms of the gift of the Spirit. James D. G.
Dunn comments at this point in his Baptism in the Holy Spirit “It was only when
the living consciousness and experience of the Spirit became less immediate and
more a conclusion to be drawn from a ceremony rightly performed that the seal
terminology came to be applied to the visible and public rite performed by
men.”[40]
Beasley-Murray
insists that there are some grounds for associating the seal of the Spirit with
the water baptism: “Thus the seal of the Spirit is neither baptism in water,
nor a baptism of the Spirit divorced from the rite of baptism: it is the
‘baptism of the Spirit’ in association with the laying of the Name of Jesus on
a believer in the rite of baptism.”[41]
The ‘seal of the Spirit’ is a synonym for the possession of the Spirit secured
in baptism'. Dunn says, “It is the Spirit, then, and
all that he effects by way of assurance and protection, transforming and
empowering, who alone fills Paul's thought and terminology in these verses.
Whether faith and baptism play any part in these events is quite immaterial to
the thought and intention of this passage.”[42]
2.2.4 Galatians
“For
in Christ Jesus you are all children of God through faith. As many of you as
were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is no
longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male
or female; for all of you belong to Christ Jesus. And if you belong to Christ,
then you are Abraham’s offspring or heirs according to the promise” (Gal
3:26-29).
This passage introduces us to some of the key
aspects of Paul’s baptismal Theology. Paul was making the case against
Judaizers who insisted that the gentile converts to Christ must be circumcised
in order to become a part of God’s people. He argued that the Law of Moses was
not binding on gentiles who could enter into covenant with God on the same
basis as Abraham did. Christ is the seed of Abraham and through him the promise
to Abraham is fulfilled. All who are in Christ share the inheritance promised
through Abraham to all nations. The passage that refers to baptism explains how
one comes to be in Christ. It is not by fleshly birth confirmed by
circumcision.
The
passage continues in chapter 4:1-7 by affirming that those in Christ have
received the adoption as God’s children received the spirit of the son enabling
him to address God as Abba. Here is not the spirit comes to make us the
children of God but they have been children of God. So they have the right to
receive the spirit. They become the children because they are so in Christ.
They enter into Christ in baptism. Baptism did not make them children of God
but the faith made them become the children of God. Paul binds that faith and
baptism together as two aspects of entering into Christ. D.G Dunn says,
“Baptized into Christ does not refer to water baptism but it is a metaphorical
expression that says a person by faith is spiritually immersed into the being
of Christ.”[43]
2.2.5 Titus
Titus
3:4-7 says: “When the goodness and loving kindness of God our savior appeared,
he saved us…through the water of rebirth and renewal us by the Holy Spirit.
This Sprit poured out on us richly through Jesus Christ our savior, so that,
having been justified by His grace; we might become heirs according to the hope
of eternal life”. The theological idea of the passage associates the baptism
which is indicated here by the washing. Baptism is not work of the human beings
but it is work of God. Titus expresses that God, Christ and Holy Spirit work
together through human beings in order to bring the rich blessings to humanity.
Conclusion
From
the above study, I conclude the baptism in the letter of Paul as follows:
1)
Paul’s understanding of baptism was the symbol
of burying the old life.
2)
Baptism is complementary to preaching the Gospel
of Lord.
3)
Paul insisted on baptism in Spirit which unites
all into one body of Christ.
4)
Paul was against the practice of circumcision.
5)
Baptism is not a work of human beings but it is
the work of God.
6)
Baptism gives the Holy Spirit and by taking part
in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
7)
Baptism has an instrumental character.
8)
Baptism is a sacrament of faith.
9)
It is connected with the daily life of ordinary
people.
10) The
baptism was connected with the crossing of Red sea where people of Israel
crossed from the life of slavery to life of freedom. Just like, baptism was
crossing from old life to new life in Christ.
CHAPTER-3
HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN BAPTISM
3.1 Background for Christian baptism
The early Christian baptism of immersion derived from the
Greco-Roman world where the bathing customs were prevalent. Edward Stommel has
argued that bathing customs in the Greco-Roman world provided a pattern for the
Christian administration of baptism. He explained that in antiquity the bather
undressed and while standing poured, or had poured on himself. The bathers sat
while hot water was poured over them. This practice was known as hipbaths,
which was practiced from the third century B.C. in Greece.[44]
Hermeneumata explained the procedure for the bathing
customs. The bather’s body was oiled, to take a little exercise, to have a
bath, and then to take the main meal of the day. The typical order of the baths
was a warm bath, a hot bath, and a cold plunge, and the baths had separate
rooms for each called the tepidarium , the caldarium and the frigidarium. The
bather’s body was anointed with the oil before or after the bath.[45]
The practice of immersion into water derived from the Greek
mythology. Thetis (a Greek goddess) and her mortal son Achilles (hero of the
Trojan War) tells of a dipping for a special purpose. In order to make her son
invulnerable, Thetis dipped him in the river Styx of the underworld. Her
holding him by the heel left that part of his body unprotected. This story is
found in the Latin poet Statius of the late first century A.D. this story
illustrates the need in this case and in a pagan context for a complete
immersion, and its use in the period of the writing of the New Testament.[46]
The early Christians adopted the practice of immersion from the Greco-Roman
culture and interpreted them in the light of Jesus Christ. Let us see, how the
Christian baptism developed in the history.
3.2 Early Period
3.2.1 Apostolic time
The New Testament does not give much detail about the
administration of baptism. Therefore, the Christian baptism must have been a
baptism by immersion. St. Paul describes baptism as a burial with Christ. “We
have been buried with him (Christ) by baptism into death (Rom 6:4)”. The Acts
of the Apostles enunciates that “Phillip and the eunuch went down into the
water and Philip baptized him. When they came up out of the water, the Spirit of
the Lord snatched Philip away; the eunuch saw him no more” (Acts 8:39).
Ephesians 5:26 says, “in order to make her holy by cleansing her with washing
of water by the word.” This Baptism is called ‘a washing of water’.
3.2.2 Second century
3.2.2.1 Didache
The Jewish-Christian document ‘Didache’ (Teaching of the
Apostles -No.7) describes the administration of baptism as follows: “after
instructing, baptize in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit, in running water. If you have no running water then baptize in other
water and if you cannot be in cold water then in warm. But if you have neither,
pour water on the three times in the name of the Father and of the Son and of
the Holy Spirit. Before Baptism, let the baptizer and the candidate for baptism
fast, as well as any others that are able. Require the candidate to fast one or
two days previously.”[47]
The running water was called as living because it was in motion. Water was a
very important element for the Jews because it gives life. “While a wind from
God swept over the face of the waters (Gen 1:2). Such water was the appropriate
place for an act that imparted life. If the running water was not available,
collected water could be used. In the absence of a sufficient amount of water
for covering the body, water could be poured over the head. It represents the
whole of the body for it runs down over the rest of the body. Eduard Stommel
explains it thus: “The action of the baptizer was the same in each case and the
only different was whether the candidate stood in running water or still water
or received the baptism while not standing in water”.[48]
3.2.2.2 Clement
Clement described the rites of baptism as the renunciation
of the evil one, an immersion in water, signifying the passage to renew life
and a sealing by which, he says that those who did not keep the seal, they will
suffer eternal punishment. Clement also compared the baptism with the ark of
Noah. He says, “Baptism is one and unique repentance; it is like Noah’s ark,
welcoming its passengers only once. Moreover, outside the ark one could do
nothing but perish.”[49]
According to Clement, “Baptism is enlightenment that effects
rebirth, cleansing and forgiveness of sin. Through baptism, we are divinized,
becoming partakers of the divine nature. Enlightenment and faith are the key
words in his understanding of baptism”.[50]
Illumination also was an important concept for Clement. He says, “When we are
baptized, we are illuminated; and when we are illuminated we are adopted; and
when we are adopted, we are perfect; and when we are perfected, we are made
immortal.”[51]
He called baptism as illumination because it’s holy saving light. We attain a
clear vision of the divine. The one who has been illuminated is immediately
delivered from darkness and receives the light. Clement identifies baptism as a
sign because it occurs through water and spirit. He interpreted two types of waters:
one is the earthly water which cleanses the body and the other is the heavenly
water which cleanses the human spirit.
3.2.2.3 Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius emphasized on God’s immediate relationship to man.
He transferred his baptismal terminology and symbolism to his physical death.
He referred his physical death as ‘dying into Christ’ was equal to ‘baptized
into Christ’. What colors Ignatius’ thought was dualism to death- baptism
because death gives access to the father. It was the saint’s victory of Eros,
desire, and the love of the material world. Death accepted as witness to
Christ, which received all the baptismal qualities. According to Ignatius, the water
was the material element, which inhabited the demonic powers, had to be
purified and even exorcised. Ignatius saw baptism as part of the armor
protecting Christians. Ignatius wrote a letter to Polycarp where the baptism was
compared to a shield. “Be pleasing to him in whose army you serve and from whom
you receive your rations. May no one of you be found a deserter? Let your
helmet, your love as your spear, your endurance as your armor (Polycarp 6.2).[52]
Ignatius insisted on receiving baptism in the hands of Bishops and the other
minister. He opposed the community not under the supervision of the bishop as
providing opportunities for false teachings and as division. He says, “It is
not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize or hold an agape. But
whatever the bishop approves, this is pleasing to God, in order that everything
you do may be safe and reliable (Smyraeans 8.2).”[53]
Ignatius’ baptismal terminology has obvious value in the history of
spirituality and Christian theology.
3.2.2.4 The Shepherd of Hermas
He was a Jewish-Christian from the middle of the second
century. He saw baptism as the foundation of a Christian. According to him,
baptism was not only individual salvation but also admission into the community
of the followers of the lord. The action of baptism involved a going down or descent
into the water. Baptism not only brought the forgiveness of sins but also the
life of sinless. He also colored further by saying that repentance for post
baptismal sins, but it got its meaning when it associated with conversion from
sinful to a pure and holy life. He says, “…before a person bears the name of
the son of God he is dead, but whenever one receives the seal, that person puts
away morality and receives life. The seal then is the water. They went down
into the water dead and they came up live.”[54]
Baptism was associated with hearing the word of the lord, believing in the lord
and repenting of sin. Baptism brought forgiveness of sins, and was necessary
for entering into the kingdom of God.
3.2.2.5 Justin the Martyr
Justin wrote the first apology in
155 A.D. and addressed to the emperor Antonius Pius. He spoke two types of
preparations: 1) the remote preparation, which meant a long period of
instruction. 2) The immediate preparation, which included prayer and fasting by
the candidate and the whole community. Then the candidates led to the water and
washed in the name of God the Father and were of our Savior Jesus Christ and of
the Holy Spirit. After this ceremony, the newly baptized was led to the community.
There was prayer for them and for the whole community; the kiss of peace was
given, followed by the Eucharistic celebration at which the newly baptized
received communion.[55]
Justin provided, “illumination or enlightenment” as a technical term for baptism,
which included instruction and adoption of the word, agreed with the intellectual
and moral content. He gave the instruction associated with baptism and the
proper understanding of divinity connected with the baptismal rite. He also
compared the baptism with the ark of Noah that saved from the flood. He
compared Noah with the figure of Christ; his family was saved as Jesus saved us
from sin; the number eight referred to the eight day on which Christ had raised
after his resurrection, after the flood the new creation began; after the
resurrection of Jesus, a new community emerged; the water was baptism; and the
ark was the cross.[56]
3.2.3 Third to Eight Century
3.2.3.1 Hippolytus
Hippolytus of Rome wrote the Apostolic Tradition, which
repotted the detailed description of the practice of the baptism in Rome. The
process started with an examination of the candidates to make sure that the
candidates who were practicing trade not eligible to receive baptism. They
followed a well-organized catechumanate with frequent exorcisms. This
preparation was for three years. If the candidates led a life of virtue and
active love of neighbor, they were chosen to receive baptism. “Let a catechumen
be instructed for three years. But if a man be earnest and persevere well in
the matter, let him be received, because it is not the time that is judged, but
the conduct (The Apostolic Tradition XVII)”.[57]As
the day of baptism came near, the bishop himself performed an exorcism over
each candidate to make sure that they were free from unclean. On Good Friday
and Holy Saturday were to be spent in fasting. The candidates prayed on bended
Knees and the bishop laid his hands on them and exorcised them.[58]
The candidates spent the whole night in vigil, listening, readings and
instructions. At cockcrow, a prayer was recited over the water to invoke upon
it the divine power. The candidates renounced Satan, his service and his works.
Then they put off all their clothes. Women also lost their hair and laid aside
their ornaments. They were exorcised again with the oil that had been blessed
by the bishop. Hippolytus envisaged the child baptism in the third century. The
Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus quoted: “They shall baptize the little
children first. Moreover, if they can answer for themselves, let them answer.
However, if they cannot, let their parents answer or someone from their family
and the next they shall baptize the grown up men; and last the women, who shall
have loosed their hair and laid aside their gold ornaments. Let no one go down
to the water having any alien object with them (XXI (4-5)”.[59]
J.Jeremias says: “There was a movement favoring the
postponement of baptism; and indeed in the four sets of sermons in the present
book the impression is inescapable that adult baptism was normal, almost
invariable even, in Jerusalem, Milan and Antioch.”[60]
During the ceremony, the candidates stood in the water and bishop laid his
hands on their heads and asked the question three times, “Do you believe in God
the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.” The candidates answered: “I believe”. Then
they were twice anointed with oil: once by the priest with the oil of thanks
giving and the second time by the bishop. The bishop imposed his hands over
them and anointed them in the name of Trinity. After the prayer, the bishop
gave the kiss of peace and then the candidates drank from three cups: one with
wine to strengthen them after the days of fast: another cup with milk and
honey, symbolizing the nourishment of the newly born, the sweetness of the word
of God and the promised land, flowing with honey and milk; a third cup with the
water, so that the interior man also received what the body had received in the
water of the baptismal font.
3.2.3.2 Tertullian
Tertullian was the first one to write a regular treatise on
baptism, ‘De Baptism’. The practice of baptism was dealt with in the third part
of the book similar to Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus. The minister of the
baptism was the bishop. The priest or deacon could baptize only with the
permission of the bishop. In cases of necessity, a layman also could baptize.
He rejected the infant baptism. He says, “it is true our Lord says, ‘Do not
hinder their coming to me.’ So let them come, but only when they are growing
up, learning, and being taught what they are coming to; let them be made
Christians when they are able to know Christ (De Baptismo, 18:5).[61]
His idea of objection to infant baptism influenced Zwingli and Karl Barth.
Tertullian described the rite of baptism that before receiving baptism, the
candidates should fast, kept vigil and confessed their sins. Flowing or still
water could be used and provided the name of God was invoked upon it and the
Holy Spirit came upon it. Baptism was done in the name of the Father, Son and
Holy Spirit. Then the candidates were anointed with oil to signify
participation in the priestly anointing of Jesus Christ. The bishop imposed his
hands on him for invocation of the Holy Spirit. They were offered to drink milk
and honey. Tertullian explained the purpose and effects of the ceremonies of
baptism thus: “Flesh is washed, that the soul may be cleansed; flesh is
anointed, that the soul may be consecrated; flesh is sealed, that the soul may
be fortified; flesh is shadowed by the imposing of the hand, that the soul may
be enlightened by the spirit; flesh feeds on the body and blood of Christ, that
the soul also may fatten on God.”[62]
3.2.3.3 Origen
Origen believed, “The church has received from the Apostles,
the tradition of giving baptism to even the youngest.”[63]
He described the baptism in biblical imagery and Old Testament symbols. Baptism
was a new exodus, which set free the person from the slavery of the devil. He
spoke of three kinds of baptism. The first was the baptism of the Old
Testament, which took place at the time of the exodus, in the cloud and the
sea. The second was the Christian baptism, which was at the time of reality
signified by the Old Testament baptism and the symbol of the baptism to come.
The third one was the eschatological baptism with the sprit and with fire,
which all Christians would have to undergo before they entered the glory. He
spoke of three-years of catechumanate. Origen mentioned infant baptism and
justified it on the ground of the existence of sin in them.
3.2.3.4 Augustine
In the fourth century, the people were confused by the heresy
of the Donatist (the followers of Donatus; bishop of Carthage). In the
Donatists’ view, “The visible church is immaculate, pure community of the
saints. Only a spotless priest can validly administer the sacraments. He is the
caput of the new life given to the baptismal candidate because the catholic
bishops are either it sinners, or else are stained with the sins of others with
whom they continue to maintain communion, every baptism administered in the
Catholic Church is null and void.”[64]
Augustine replied, “The sign of baptism is made up of the element (water) and
the word. The word is interiorly, necessary bound to the gospel of God, and
that means to the salvation event in Christ and faith in the Triune God. Hence
the word of the sacrament is more than the personal word of faith of the
minister.”[65]
Pelagianism (Pelagius
was a British monk from Rome in about 383). Pelagius held that all human beings
were born into the world as sinless as Adam was before he fell; the apostasy of
Adam had not corrupted humanity’s nature, but had merely set a fatally bad
example, which most of Adam’s sons and daughters had freely followed. However
there were some people who had managed to remain sinless throughout their lives
by a proper use of their free will. In fact any one could become sinless and perfect
if only he tried hard enough.”[66]
Augustine argued that the entire human race was mysteriously
present in Adam, the head of humankind; when he sinned and fell, human nature
itself sinned and fell in him. As a result, every human was born into the world
with a sinful nature. This was called ‘Original sin’. He also added that the
babies would not need baptism if they were born sinless. It was certain that we
would always sin willingly, unless the grace of Christ saved us.
Pelagius
admitted that human beings needed God’s grace in order to be good. He meant two
types of grace: 1) God’s gift of natural free will to all human beings; 2)
God’s gift of the moral law and the example of Christ. Augustine’s view on
grace was not natural free will but it was God’s gift of the moral law and the
example of Christ; it was the life-giving power of the Holy Spirit, who created
a good will in evil people, and then worked with that good will to make it bear
fruit in sanctification.
3.3 Mediaeval period
The two rituals contained in the pontifical Romano
Germanicum, namely the order for making one a catechumen and the order for
conferring baptism. Gradually the different ceremonies were joined together
into one. In the ninth century, the water was blessed and the paschal candle
was immersed into the water, which signified that the light of Christ purified
the water for baptism. In the eleventh century, the handing over of the
lightened candle to the neophyte was introduced as the symbol of enlightenment.
In the twelfth century, the baptism was given in the weekday.[67]
Baptism was given to infant immediately after birth because of the high
mortality of children and because of the theological trend that considered baptism
of water as something that was necessary for salvation. From the tenth century
onwards, immersion was replaced by infusion. This rite continued until Vatican
II. A prayer accompanied the giving of the white garment. In the 14th
century, the ritual of baptism with all the ceremonies of catechumenate and
baptism joined into one rite. J.D.C. Fisher spoke of four developments in the
medieval west. He says, “1) The separation of confirmation from baptism; 2) The
separation of communion reception from Christian initiation; 3) The separation
of initiation from Easter/ Pentecost; and 4) the fragmentation of the unitive
rite of initiation into three distinct sacraments separated further by
increasingly larger intervals of time.”[68]
3.4 Reformation period
3.4.1 Martin Luther
Luther wrote in his treatise, “The holy and blessed
sacrament of baptism”. Luther emphasized that baptism was the work of god and
not of man. There were three elements in baptism; the sign, the significance
and the faith. The sign was immersion in the water and the emergence from it.
The significance was the death to sin and resurrection in the grace of God,
resulting in the rebirth of the human person. The dying to sin symbolized by
the baptism continues all through life. In baptism sin was not destroyed, it
remained in the human person’s nature, but God ceased to impute it to him or
her. The human beings remained sinners because they were living in sinful
flesh.
3.4.2 Zwingli
According to Zwingli baptism was simply a covenantal sign.
It could not of itself bring about forgiveness of sins. In contrast to the
catholic teaching that, baptism was an effective sign, which brought about what
it signified. Zwingli held that it was only an initiatory sign, which
symbolized but did not effect an inward change in the baptized person. The
covenantal sign of baptism pledged the baptized person to live a life of faith
and discipleship.
3.4.3 John Calvin
John Calvin was called the first systematic theologian of
the protestant reformation due to his multi-volume ‘Institute of the Christian
Religion’ in 1536. According to Calvin, “baptism was useful but not essential”.
He emphasized on the absolute power and majesty of God that led him to reject
the idea of any essential relation between the sacraments and grace. Baptism
did not liberate the human person from sin but it assured the elect that God’s
condemnation of them had been cancelled. They had to continue to struggle
against sin all through their life.
3.5 Post-modern period
This twenty- first century phenomenon stemmed from a number
of different causes. Today the theology of baptism was nourished by the church
documents. In 1962, the Sacred Congregation of rites published the new ordo for
the baptism of adults. The second Vatican council proposed the restoration of
the catechumenate. Today we have two separate rites for baptism: one is for
Christian initiation of adults and another rite for the baptism of infants. The
second Vatican council document on constitution on the sacred liturgy (67)
says: “The rite for the baptism of infants is to be revised, its revision
taking into account the fact that those to be baptized are infants. The roles
of parents and godparents, and also their duties, should be brought out more
clearly in the rite itself.”[69]
In 1969, Pope Paul produced a new ‘ordo Baptismi parvulorum’ (Rite of baptism
for children, RBC). United Reformed Church (URC) and the Churches of Christ
published a report in 1974 which emphasized three things upon the baptism: 1)
Baptism is the proclamation of God’s gracious act of redemption in Christ and
that God’s action is primary. 2) Baptism requires the response of faith 3)
Baptism is an act of the church and that what the church does it can only of
the church and that what the church does it can only do once.[70]
John Paul II, Pastoralis Actio of the Sacred Congregation for the doctrine of
the faith (20-October 1980) reviews the problems that are connected with the
practice of infant baptism and states that Baptism is a manifestation of the
Father’s prevenient love, sharing in Son’s Paschal Mystery and a communication
of new life in the spirit; it brings people into the inheritance of God and joins
them to the Body of Christ, the Church.[71]
It gives the theological meaning of infant baptism, shows the limits to this
practice taking into account the present state of the Christian society and
then gives guidelines for its practice today. Catechism of the Catholic Church
(CCC1265) describes, “Baptism not only purifies from all sins, but also makes
the neophte ‘a new creature’ an adopted son of God, who has become a ‘partaker
of the divine nature,’ member of Christ and co-heir with him, and a temple of
the Holy Spirit.”[72]
conclusion
1)
Baptism was practiced by Greco-Roman world in a
different way.
2)
The theology and practice of baptism has been
gradually developed in the history.
3)
In this chapter I have presented the historical
development of baptism in the chronological order from the early period to
present period.
Let us see in the next chapter, how the baptism could be
meaningfully celebrated in the postmodern period.
CHAPTER-4
BAPTISM IN THE POST-MODERNISM
4.1 Meaning of post-modernism
Oxford dictionary defines the term
postmodernism like this: “A style and movement in art, architecture,
literature, etc., in the late 20th century that reacts against
modern style for example by mixing features from traditional and modern style.”[73]
4.2 Modern Thinking
Modern thinking started when Isaac Newton
first observed gravity 300 years ago. What was new about Newton’s experience
was not so much his insight about gravity but rather the fact that he observed
it. Before Newton, pre-modern thinkers believed that all insight was revealed
by a divine source. Newton began the scientific revolution which relied on the
powers of human observation and reflection to understand how the world worked.
Modernism was not bad and certainly could not be thought of as the root of all
evil. It was just a way of thinking about reality.
Modern thought was linear and told us that
history was meaningful, words were meaningful and truth was definable in
absolute terms. Modern thought told us that science and technology were capable
of eventually solving all our problems because as rational individuals, we
could think our way out of anything. [74]
4.3 Post-Modern Thinking
Science, technology and education, as
thought earlier did not seem to solve the problems. They solved some problems but
they caused new difficulties as well. The people began to question the value of
modern thinking. These post-modern thinkers were not interested in directly
refusing modern thought as much as challenging the absoluteness of it. The
scientific method may be a valuable tool for observing reality but it is an
intuition and instinct.
In a post-modern world, there is no
supreme rational individual that is distinct and apart from the rest of
society. The individual is a product of a community or even of several communities.
We learn values from various communities. These values help us to unite all
communities and not to separate us from those communities.[75]
These backgrounds of the post-modernism help us to understand how baptism is
seen by the other ecumenical communities.
4.4 Ecumenical perspective
Baptism is the sacrament which makes us
the children of God. This privilege leads us to the unity of the Churches and
the unity of all Christians. At the same time we also see the reality of a Church
that is spilt and divided into many. All the Churches claim to be the true Churches
and sometimes are even in conflict with one another. In this situation Vatican
II has been a turning point in the relation of the Catholic Church to the other
Churches. The Christians of reformation Churches are no more considered as
enemies but as brothers and sisters. In many areas of the world, especially in
India there are groups of such Christians who pray together, work together and
give common witness to their common faith. Even in the seminary formation the
ecumenical unity is motivated as a part of the formation of the seminarians.
Every year the ecumenical unity octave is conducted by the St. Paul’s seminary,
Tiruchirappalli. A preacher from the other denomination addresses the
seminarians to grow in the ecumenical Spirit. This is one of the examples of
ecumenical unity which is promoted by the Catholic Church. But there are
numerous events that take place every day and in different places.
This is possible today because the
church updates itself according to the signs of today’s postmodern thinking.
The encyclical letter Ut Unum Sint (1995) of Pope John Paul II tells
that, “what binds us is much stronger than what separates us” (UUS.20).[76]
This encyclical letter may consider as the Magna Charta of the Catholic Church
for ecumenical unity. The decree on Ecumenism of Vatican II tells us that
outside the boundaries of the Catholic Church we find not only individual
Christians but real Churches. The Catholic Church accepts these Churches on an
equal footing”[77]
(UR.9).
Baptism is the foundation for the unity
of all Christians. Some Churches recognize other churches’ baptism. The
Catholic Church, the ancient Eastern Churches (the Coptic, the Ethiopian and
the Armenian Churches), the Byzantine and Slavonic orthodox Churches mutually
recognize the baptism as valid.
All the Churches agree on baptism with
water and the Holy Spirit. They also agree that baptism leads us to participate
in Christ’s death and resurrection. The
Catholic Church accepts the baptism of other Churches which follow the
Trinitarian formula, “I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Spirit.” Today no conditional baptism is administered to those
who come to the Catholic Church. But the baptism of the Jehovah witnesses,
Salvation Army and Christian Science is not considered as baptism at all.
4.5 Baptism and ecumenical unity
Baptism is the basis for all ecumenical
unity. Vatican II documents unified the relationship between the sacrament of
baptism and the unity of all Christians. “All those justified by faith through
baptism are incorporated into Christ. They have right to be honored by the
title of Christian and are properly regarded as brothers in the Lord by the
sons of the Catholic Church (Decree on Ecumenism 3/1).[78]
This document clearly expresses the non-Catholic Christians are fundamentally
in communion with the Catholic Church. But the Canon 869&2 says: “Those
Baptized in non-catholic ecclesial community must not be baptized conditionally
unless, after an examination of the matter and the form of words used in the
conferral of baptism and consideration of the intention of the baptized adult
and the minister of the baptism.”[79]
This canon is very much interested emphasizing the bond that unites all
Christians on the basis of one baptism.
The Decree on Ecumenism states:
“Baptism, therefore, constitutes a sacramental bond of unity linking all who
have been reborn by means of it (UR 22/2).[80]
The constitution of the Church emphasizes on the bond that unites all who are
baptized. “The Church knows that she is joined in many ways to the baptized who
are honored by the name of Christian, but who do not however profess the
Catholic faith in its entirety or have not preserved unity or communion under
the successor of Peter (LG 15).”[81]
In spite of all the theological
differences the Catholic Church wants this union with other denominations
through the baptism because the baptism is the unifying factor which unites all
Christians under one umbrella because it is the baptism of Christ.
4.6 Challenges
1) Those who converts from other religions,
baptism is demanding to separate one’s social and cultural heritage and
accepting a new name and a life style that segregates the convert from his
compatriots.
2) A
baptized Christian might lose his job, employment opportunities and financial
benefits for the education of his children. Mr. Savarimuthu who is working in a
well Known Government company and belongs to the so called Dalit community
lives as a Christian without receiving the baptism in order to safe guard his
job.
3) The
converts are not able to perform the social or ritual duties for the parents at
their death and the consequent pain it inflicts upon the family members.
4) The
baptized Christians themselves sometimes do not accept their own so called low
caste Christians on terms of equality and do not participate in the marriage
and funeral services of their family members.
5) The
caste system is prevailing among the baptized Christians. In the same place
there is a separate place both in the Church and in the cemetery.
6) Many
baptized Christians do not live a life their baptismal commitment and the
baptism is just a formality and social custom.
7) Canon
855 says that “Parents, sponsors and the pastor are to take care that a name
foreign to Christian sensibility is not given.”[82] The
Christian name is not given to the child.
8) In
India, the Christians are considered as a minority community.
9) The
parents and godparents are not aware of the basic meaning and theology of
baptism because they lack of preparation for the baptism.
10) Canon
857§2 says, “As a rule an adult is to be baptized in his or her
parish Church and an infant in the parish Church of the parents unless a just
cause suggests otherwise.”[83]
Some rich people give baptism in the famous Churches and shrines in order to
show their social and economical status and prestige to other people.
11) At
the time of baptism the parents are busy with welcoming the guest and preparing
the food. Some people bring their children even after the mass is started. They
are in hurry-burry and do not fully
participate during the Eucharistic celebration.
12) Many
people think that the rite of baptism is a ritual, not connected with their
lives.
13) Some
of the parents select unknown persons as Godparents. They do not enquire about
their personal life.
14) The
parents and Godparents are not properly prepared before the baptism.
15) The
Parents have forgotten their responsibilities to raise the child in Christian
faith.
16) Some
of the God parents do not nurture the faith of their spiritual Child.
4.7 Proposal
Much has changed in the teaching and
practice of the Church since the second Vatican Council. Study and reflection
about baptism continues till today. Due to researches, we see more changes in
the practice of baptism. The following proposal uses the Church ritual before
and after baptism which attend to the family context of infant baptism. In
Tamil Nadu, the celebration of baptism is not given much importance. So this
proposal may help the priest who is doing creatively in his pastoral ministry.
4.7.1 Pre-Catechumenate
Before the birth:
The purpose of a ritual before the
birth of the child is to prepare the mind of the parents for accepting the
child. This could be a home visitation or a group meeting of the expected
parents. The rite could also be used as part of family prayer in the weeks
before the child is due. It can be conducted in the joys and sorrows of its
members and to know the feelings of the parents. Some pregnancies are wanted,
others are not. The parents should be helped to anticipate the coming the
child, to think about their role as Christian parents and to review the meaning
of Christian baptism. The following ritual is suggested before the birth of the
child:
Leader:
Our help is in the name of the Lord
All: The maker of heaven and earth
Glory be to the
Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. As it was in the beginning, is
now and ever shall be, world without end .Amen.
A psalm is recited together,
antiphonally or responsorial
Ps 113 – we praise God who gives life
to the human race.
A lesson is read.
Luke 2:39-56 - Elizabeth and Mary
rejoice in their pregnancies as gifts from God.
A brief period of reflection and prayer
may follow
Leader:
Let us offer our prayers to God.
All: Lord,
have mercy.
All are invited to offer petitions.
The mother of the child may be granted
safe pregnancy and a normal labor.
Leader:
Our Father…
The leader signs the cross on the
mother’s forehead and saying:
May the Lord bless you and keep you,
bringing you safely to your child’s birth and baptism.
All: Amen.
Leader:
Let us bless the Lord
All: Thanks be to God.[84]
4.7.2 Catechumenate
Ritual after birth:
The purpose of a visit after birth,
either at the hospital or at home is to discuss about baptism. The birth may
have been happy and healthy, in which case the purpose of the visit is to thank
God. This would be the appropriate time to discuss with the parents about the
child’s name. The parents are to be encouraged in their role as the first
catechists of the child and to see the Christian home as a nursery of the
faith.
Sometimes the birth may have been
unhappy or tragic. In this case the purpose of the visit would be to pray for
God’s blessing in a difficult situation and for the parish to offer itself as a
support community for the distressed. The following ritual is suggested after
birth:
Leader:
Our help is in the name of the Lord
All: The maker of heaven and earth
Glory
be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. As it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be,
world without end .Amen.
A psalm is recited together,
antiphonally or responsorial
Ps 113 –God is praised for the gift of
the child.
A Lesson is read
Luke 2:46-55 – Mary sings praises to
God for her child.
A brief period of reflection and prayer
may follow
Leader:
Let us offer our prayers to God.
All: Lord, have mercy.
All are invited to offer petitions.
In joy and delight at the birth of this
child, let us pray…
All: Our Father…
The leader lays his hands on the
child’s head saying
The
Lord bless you and keep you
Until
the day of your baptism.
All: Amen.
Leader:
Let us bless the Lord
All: Thanks be to God.[85]
4.7.3 Purification
Before baptism:
The purpose of this prayer is to ask
God’s blessing on the coming event and to prepare the family for the baptism of
the child. Prayer before baptism should be well integrated into the daily
prayer of the family. Baptism is not a private family affair and each family
should remember the other children and the other families at prayer. The
following ritual is suggested before baptism:
Parent:
Let us offer our prayers to God.
All: Lord have mercy.
All are invited to offer petitions.
Our child may be born again in the
waters of life and so be rescued from death.
Parent:
Let us bless the Lord
All: Thanks be to God.
4.7.4 Mystagogy
Baptismal remembrance at Church:
Christian baptism is the beginning and
not the end of Christian life. The remembrance of the baptism has been held up
to the faithful, not only at the time of baptism or at the Easter Vigil but at
the special baptismal anniversary celebrations. The following ritual is
suggested for the baptismal remembrance at church.
Presider: Let us rejoice together in our baptism into
Christ, recalling our birth in the
living waters and committing ourselves to a new covenant through the death and
resurrection of Christ to God’s covenant of life.
Do you renounce Satan and all Satan’s work and all Satan’s empty promises?
All: we do.
Presider:
Do you believe in God the Father Almighty?
All: I believe in God the Father…
(Apostolic Creed)
Presider:
Do you believe in God the son?
All: Yes, I believe in Jesus Christ.
Presider:
Do you believe in God the Holy Spirit?
All: Yes, I believe in Holy Spirit.
The presider blesses the people
and saying:
Presider:
May almighty God,
Who
has birthed us into new life,
Quenched our thirst,
Cleansed us inside and out,
Carried us from a deathly land into the
dominion of righteousness
And joined our death to the death and
resurrection of Christ,
Sign you with the cross of Christ
And keep you safe, faithful until the
end.
All: Amen.[86]
conclusion
1)
The postmodern people give importance to the
ritual.
2)
In spite of all challenges the baptism is being
celebrated at the present time.
3)
Baptism is not only a ritual but it is an
entrance to a new life in Christ.
4)
Baptism is not an individual celebration but a
community celebration.
5)
Baptism promotes the ecumenical Spirit.
General Conclusion
In the post-modern world, individualism
is very much emphasized rather than the
communitarianism. In the Twenty-First century, there is a tremendous spirit development
in the field of information technology. This growth paves the way to shift the
whole world into a small village. Due to globalization, both the men and women
rush from the pillar to post to earn for their livelihood. They relate
themselves with the people who live in abroad but forget to relate themselves
with the local people and even with their own family members. These
individualistic attitudes break the joint family system and pave the way for neuclear
family system. So both the husband and wife hardly find any time to spend with
their own children. In this situation, are they bring up their children in
Christian faith? The future generation will it have or lose the sense of
responsibility and faithfulness towards the Church. The atheistic ideas might influence
the people to go away from God and from the Christian community.
Above all, in this post-modern
situation, if I conclude my dissertation by saying that the baptism is only a
ritual and then I may be wrong because the ritual itself has seems to nothing to do with our
daily life. The rituals only bind with
some ceremonial rites. This may mislead us to have a blind understanding of the
sacrament of baptism. The sacrament of baptism must actually unite us with the
ecclesial and universal community in which Christ himself is present. For the sacrament of baptism first unites the
child with the local community to which it belongs. The baptism is not a private
celebration in which the parents profess their faith. Ratherthey give the
promise on behalf of the child along with the community. Therefore, it is not
only the duty of the parents to bring up the child in the Catholic faith but it
also the duty of the whole Catholic community. The community renews its faith
not only at the time of Easter Vigil once in a year. But every time when the
celebration of baptism takes place in the parish, besides the Sunday masses.
Baptism is an exciting and important
public celebration. It is an act of obedience to the words of Jesus. When the
child is baptized, the parents are declaring to God, to the Church and to the
community that the child belongs to Jesus and that it is ready to live in the Apostolic
Catholic faith. This faith alone leads the people not to see the baptism as
merely a ritual but to go beyond what the ritual symbolizes but to the real
significance in the daily life. I hope this would be a right approach towards
the understanding of baptism in this post-modern period.
In fact, the study of the sacrament of
baptism is an ocean. Here I have tasted only a drop of it with the help of some
of the available sources. So I request the persons who are interested in
studying more on the sacrament of baptism to go for a deeper research.
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[1]
This quotation has taken from: Anthony P.Castle, “More Quotes and Anecdotes”.
(Mumbai: St Pauls Press, 2001).p-170.
[2]
A.S.Hornby and Sally Wehmeier, “Oxford
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[3]
Bhattacharya and Clarence o. Mc Mullan, “Rituals
and Sacraments in Indian Religions”. (Punjab: The Christian institution of
Sikh studies, 1979).p-25.
[4]
Errol D' Lima, “Sacraments in General”.
(Bangalore: Theological Publication in India, 2007).p-40.
[5]
Bhattacharya and Clarence O. Mc Mullan, “Rituals
and Sacraments in Indian Religions”.p-31.
[6]
Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
confirmation”. (Bangalore: Theological publication in India, 2010). p-5.
[7]
Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
confirmation”. p-5.
[8]
Bhattacharya and Clarence O. Mc Mullan, “Rituals
and Sacraments in Indian Religions”. p-31.
[9]
Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
confirmation”. p-6.
[10]Amrit
Sanskar, published on 29.2.2013, access date 7.9.2013, available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_initiation_rites#Christianity;
internet.
[11]
Raghubir Sing Tak and Clarence O. Mc Mullan, “Rituals and Sacraments in Indian Religions”.p-126.
[12]
P.V.Bapat, “2500 Years of Buddhism”. (Delhi:
Publication division, Government of India, 1987).p- 160.
[13]
Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
confirmation”. p-9.
[14]
Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
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[15]
Abdulkader Tayob, “Islam- A short
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The Sacraments of Christian initiation, “Catechism
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John P Beal, “New commentary on the code
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Peter J. Vaghi, “The sacraments we Celebrate”. (New York:
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[19] Anselm Grun, “The Seven
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[20]Dupuis, Jacques, “ The Christian
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Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and
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Donnald Cardinal Wuerl and Jem Sullivan, “The
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Michel Fallon, “The Gospel According to St.Matthew”.
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[28]Raymond
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James D.G.Dunn, “Baptism in the Holy Spirit”.(Philadelphia:Westminister
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[32]Rudolf
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G.R. Beasley Murray, “Baptism in the New Testament”. (U.K: Paternoster
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[34]Marcus
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[36]
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[37]
Rudolf Schnackenburg, “Baptism in the Thought of St. Paul”.p-92.
[38]
G.R. Beasley Murray, “Baptism in the New Testament”.p-181.
[39]
G.R. Beasley Murray, “Baptism in the New Testament”.p-170.
[40]
James D.G.Dunn, “Baptism in the Holy Spirit”.p-133.
[41]
G.R. Beasley Murray, “Baptism in the New Testament”.p-174.
[42]
James D.G.Dunn, “Baptism in the Holy Spirit”.p-134.
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Everett
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Everett Ferguson, “Baptism in the Early
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[47] Burkhard
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John G Lynch, “Becoming
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[57]Max Thurian and Geoffrey Wain wright,
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[58]
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[59]Max Thurian and Geoffrey Wain wright, “Baptism and
Eucharist Eccuminical Convergence in Celebaration”.p-7.
[60]Edward Yarnold, “The
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[61]
John G. Lynch,
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p-58.
[62]Eerdmans Brill, “The encyclopedia
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[63] Henri
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[64]Burkhard Neunheuser,
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[65] Paul Puthanangady, “Baptism and confirmation”. P-45-46.
[66] N.R.
Needham, “2000 years of Christ”. (England: Grace Publications Trust,
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[68]MaxWell E. Johnson, “The Rites of Christian Initiation”. (Minnesota:
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[69]Austin
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Jacques Dupuis, “The Christian Faith”.
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A.S. Hornby, “Oxford
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[74]NickWagner,Liturgy.Jan20,2013,accessed,Jan26,2014,http://www.rpinet.com/ml/2604post.Html.
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[79] John P.Beal (ed), James A.
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[84] Mark Searle (ed), Gail Ramshaw-
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